The astronauts were first and foremost test pilots, men accustomed to flying along in the newest, most advanced, and most powerful vehicles this civilization had produced.
They were talented specialists who loved to fly high-performance aircraft and who had survived the natural selection process in their profession. The demand for excellence in piloting skills, in physical health, and psychological adaptability becomes ever more stringent as one ascends the ladder toward the elite among military aviators, those senior test pilots with upwards of hours' total flying time. Eisenhower's decision that the military services could provide the pilots greatly simplified the astronaut selection procedure.
From a total of service records screened in January by Stanley C. White, Robert B. Voas, and William S. Augerson at the military personnel bureaus in Washington, men were found to meet the minimum standards specified earlier.
This list of names included five Marines, 47 Navy men, and 58 Air Force pilots. Several Army pilots' records had been screened earlier, but none was a graduate of a test pilot school. The selection process began while the possibility of manned Redstone flights in late still existed on paper.
Donlan, decided to divide the list of arbitrarily into three groups and to issue invitations for the first group of 35 to come to Washington at the beginning of February for briefings and interviews.
Donlan was pleased to learn from his staff, White, Voas, and Augerson, that 24 of the first group interviewed were happy with the prospects of participating in the Mercury program. Every one of the first 10 men interrogated on February 2 agreed to continue through the elimination process.
The next week another group of possible pilot-candidates arrived in Washington. The high rate of volunteering made it unnecessary to extend the invitations to the third group.
Justifying this action, George Low reported: During the briefings and interviews it became apparent that the final number of pilots should be smaller than the twelve originally planned for.
The high rate of interest in the project indicates that few, if any, of the men will drop out during the training program. It would, therefore, not be fair to the men to carry along some who would not be able to participate in the flight program. Consequently, a recommendation has been made to name only six finalists. Sixty-nine men had reported to Washington in two groups by the middle of February.
Of these, six were found to have grown too tall. Fifty-six pilots took the initial battery of written tests, technical interviews, psychiatric interviews, and medical history reviews. Those who declined or were eliminated reduced the total at the beginning of March to 36 men.
They were invited to undergo the extraordinary physical examinations planned for them at the Lovelace Clinic in Albuquerque. Thirty-two accepted and became candidates, knowing also that they were scheduled to pass through extreme mental and physical environmental tests at the Wright Air Development Center, in Dayton, Ohio, after being certified as physically qualified by the Lovelace Clinic.
The 32 candidates were assured that the data derived from these special examinations in New Mexico and Ohio would not jeopardize their military careers, since none of the findings was to go into their service records. Although the psycho physiological criteria for the selection of the best possible pilots for manned space flight had been under discussion for several years, the actual arrangement of the selection procedures for Mercury was directed by a NASA selection committee consisting of a senior management engineer, Donlan; a test pilot engineer, North; two flight surgeons, White and Augerson; two psychologists, Allen O.
Gamble and Voas; and two psychiatrists, George E. Ruff and Edwin Z. These seven men had done the screening of records and the interviews and testing in Washington, constituting phases one and two of the selection program, before remanding their pool of 32 candidates to the medical examiners at the Lovelace Foundation.
Individually each candidate arrived at Albuquerque to undergo approximately a week of medical evaluations under each of five different schedules.
In this third phase of the program, over 30 different laboratory tests collected chemical, encephalographic, and cardiographic data. X-ray examinations thoroughly mapped each man's body. The ophthalmology section and the otolaryngology sections likewise learned almost everything about each candidate's eyes, and his ears, nose, and throat.
Special physiological examinations included bicycle ergometer tests, a total-body radiation count, total-body water determination, and the specific gravity of the whole body.
Heart specialists made complete cartiological examinations, and other clinicians worked out more complete medical histories on these men than probably had ever before been attempted on human beings. Nevertheless the selectees were so healthy that only one of the 32 was found to have a medical problem potentially serious enough to eliminate him from the subsequent tests at the Wright Aeromedical Laboratory. Phase four of the selection program was an amazingly elaborate set of environmental studies, physical endurance tests, anthropometric measurements, and psychiatric studies conducted at the Aeromedical Laboratory of the Wright Air Development Center.
During March each of the 31 subjects spent another week experiencing a wide range of stressful conditions. Voas explained phases three and four: "While the purpose of the medical examinations at Lovelace Clinic had been to determine the general health status of the candidates, the purpose of the testing program at Wright Field was to determine the physical and psychological capability of the individual to respond effectively and appropriately to the various types of stresses associated with space missions.
Continuous psychiatric interviews, the necessity of living with two psychologists throughout the week, and extensive self-examination through a battery of 13 psychological tests for personality and motivation, and another dozen different tests on intellectual functions and special aptitudes--these were all part of the week of truth at Dayton. Two of the more interesting personality and motivation studies seemed like parlor games at first, until it became evident how profound an exercise in Socratic introspection was implied by conscientious answers to the test questions "Who am I?
In the peer ratings, each candidate was asked which of the other members of the group of five accompanying him through this phase of the program he liked best, which one he would like to accompany him on a two-man mission, and whom he would substitute for himself. February 10 Wiind tunnel tests of Project Mercury configuration models were started.
Figure 6. Memo, Paul E. February 12 Search and recovery support by the Navy was discussed in a meeting with officials of that service and NASA.
NASA members included E. Buckley, C. Mathews, and G. The Navy was represented by Captain J. Gannon, with other members to be chosen at a later date. Specifically discussed were technical details of the first Atlas test flight Big Joe , the abort sensing capability for later flights, and overall program objectives. Memo, A. February 15 The medical examinations at the Wright Air Development Center for the final selection of the Mercury astronauts were started. They decided that joint recovery exercises would be initiated as soon as possible.
The committee members determined that the Navy, particularly the Atlantic fleet, could support operations from Wallops Island; could perform search and recovery operations along the Atlantic Missile Range, using of the selected Project Mercury vehicles; and that naval units could support operations in the escape area between Cape Canaveral and Bermuda. February 19 In a speech, Dr. The cost, he said in effect, was high because a new area of technology was being explored for the first time and there were no precedents or experience factors from which to draw, and because the world-wide tracking network construction was a tremendous undertaking.
Draft Memorandum, John H. February 20 Responsibility for planning and contracting for Project Mercury tracking facilities was formally assigned to the Langley Research Center see January 16, , entry. Subjects studied included pilot safety, simulation of entry from orbit, length of zero-g time, missile stability and aerodynamics, ascent accelerations, and range. This group reconvened on March 13, Report No. IV, March 20, February 26 Panel Number I Design Subcommittee met at Redstone Arsenal for the first time to discuss integration requirements for the Mercury spacecraft with the Redstone and Jupiter launch vehicles.
Memo, William M. Bland, Jr. Memo, Albin O. February 27 Space Task Group personnel established the design trajectory for the Big Joe flight test. Convair Astronautics and Space Technology Laboratories personnel provided consultation and advice on ways in which these trajectory requirements could be met.
Memo, Christopher C. February during the month During a meeting between personnel of the Space Task Group and the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division, the responsibilities of the two organizations were outlined for the first two Atlas firings.
Space Technology Laboratories, under Air Force Ballistic Missile Division direction, would select the design trajectories according to the specifications set forth by the Space Task Group. These specifications were to match a point in the trajectory at about , feet, corresponding to a normal reentry condition for the manned spacecraft after firing of the retrorockets at an altitude of nautical miles. Space Technology Laboratories would also provide impact dispersion data, data for range safety purposes, and the necessary reprograming of the guidance computers.
The spacecraft for the suborbital Atlas flights would be manufactured under the deriction of the Lewis Research Center, based on Space Task Group designs. Space Task Group was developing the spacecraft instrumentation, with a contingent of personnel at the Lewis Research Center. The attitude control system was being developed by Lewis.
Six working panels concerned with various aspects of the Mercury-Redstone program were formed to resolve problem areas that might arise. Later the number of panels was reduced to four, and then to three. Typical areas of study included design coordination, pilot safety, and aerodynamics, to name a few. Louis, Missouri, to discuss spare part and ground support equipment requirements for Project Mercury.
March 8 An abort test was conducted at Wallops Island on a full-scale model of the spacecraft with the escape tower, using a Recruit escape rocket. The configuration did not perform as expected erratic motion , and as a result, the Langley Research Center was requested to test small-scale flight models of the abort system to determine its motion in flight.
Memo, Howard S. Carter and Carl A. March 9 The Langley Research Center began exploratory noise transmission tests. The Center had also completed a report on rocket engine noise for use in determining the level of noise to which the prototype Mercury spacecraft would be subjected. Tests were in progress at Langley and Wallops Island on several types of ablating materials under environmental conditions that would be experienced by a spacecraft reentering from orbit.
March 10 The Space Task Group was notified by McDonnell that several of its subcontractors were experiencing difficulties in procuring material necessary to fabricate Project Mercury components.
This delay was being caused by the lack of a DX priority procurement rating. March 11 Langley's Pilotless Aircraft Research Division conducted, at Wallops Island, the first full-scale test simulating a pad-abort situation.
A full weight and size spacecraft was used. For the first 50 feet the flight was essentially straight, indicating the successful functioning of the abort rocket. Thereafter, the spacecraft pitched through several turns and impacted a short distance from the shore. The malfunction was traced to the loss of a graphite insert from one of the three abort rocket nozzles, which caused a misalignment of thrust.
March 17 Funds were requested to purchase 6 main parachute and 12 drogue parachute canisters fig. Memo, Andre J. Meyer, Jr.
Figure 7. Equipment installation in the parachute canister. Figure 8. McDonnell mock-up of Mercury spacecraft including Atlas adapter and escape system.
At that time it was decided that the first flights of both the Redstone and Jupiter would be unmanned. The second flights would be "manned" with primates, and the Jupiter phase would end at that point.
The six remaining Redstones would be used in manned flights for astronaut training. Memo, Walter J. Space Task Group personnel prepared a study on the "Recovery Operations for Project Mercury" covering plans for suborbital and orbital flights. This document was forwarded to the Department of Defense for comment and for briefing of appropriate units.
March 26 The Langley Research Center received approval for funds to conduct hypersonic flight tests for the Mercury spacecraft. Langley's Pilotless Aircraft Research Division would conduct tests on heat transfer rates at a velocity of mach 17, and dynamic behavior tests from a velocity of mach 10 to a subsonic speed. March 27 Dr. March 28 Space Task Group officials were involved in an investigation as to whether the escape system should be changed.
In the original proposal, McDonnell's plan was to use eight small rockets housed in a fin adapter, but this plan was set aside for a NASA developed plan in which a single-motor tripod would be used.
Later, during a test of the escape system, the escape rockets appeared to fire properly but the spacecraft began to tumble after launch. This tumbling action caused concern, and Space Task Group engineers felt that the tower-escape system might have to be discarded, and a "second look" was taken at the McDonnell proposal.
The engineers concluded, however, that there were too many problems involved and the single-motor tripod concept was retained and has been proven to be quite effective. Figure 9. Escape rocket motor. March 30 Space Task Group personnel visited the Atlantic Missile Range at the invitation of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency to observe a Jupiter launch vehicle firing and the procedures followed on the day preceding the firing.
The group toured the blockhouse and received briefings on various recorders that might be used in the centralized control facility for Mercury-Redstone and Mercury-Jupiter flights. Kraft, Jr. March 31 Range Safety personnel at the Atlantic Missile Range were briefed by Space Task Group personnel on the description of the Mercury spacecraft, how it would function during a normal flight on an Atlas launch vehicle, and suggest methods for initiation of an abort during different powered phases of a flight.
Atlantic Missile Range personnel discussed their past experience, and work was started to draft a Project Mercury range safety plan. April 2 A preliminary briefing was conducted for prospective bidders on construction of the worldwide tracking range for Project Mercury. This meeting was attended by representatives from 20 companies.
At this time the preliminary plan called for an orbital mission tracking network of 14 sites. Contacts had not been made with the governments of any of the proposed locations with the exception of Bermuda. It was planned that all the sites would have facilities for telemetry, voice communications with the pilot, and teletype wire or radio communications with centers in the United States for primary tracking.
The tracking sites would provide the control center at Cape Canaveral, Florida, with trajectory predictions; landing-area predictions; and vehicle, systems, and pilot conditions. Crew selection for Project Mercury was completed, resulting in the selection of seven astronauts to participate in the Mercury program. April NASA and the military services conducted meetings to draft final plans for the Project Mercury animal payload program. The animal program was planned to cover nine flights, involving Little Joe, Redstone, Jupiter, and Atlas launch vehicles.
An initial orientation was given to the seven Project Mercury astronauts, when they reported to the Space Task Group for duty.
After responsibility for the worldwide tracking range construction of Project Mercury had been assumed by the Langley Research Center, the following study contracts were placed: 1 Aeronutronics to study radar coverage and trajectory computation requirements, 2 RCA Service Corporation for specification writing, 3 Lincoln Laboratories for consultant services and proposal evaluations, and 4 Space Electronics for the design of the control center at Cape Canaveral.
The Chief of Naval Operations directed the Atlantic Fleet to support Project Mercury as follows: 1 landing and recovery systems in the area of Norfolk, Virginia, to develop spacecraft pickup and handling techniques for ships and helicopters, 2 recovery of capsules on solid rocket launch vehicle tests in the area of Wallops Island, and 3 Atlas launch vehicle development or ballistic flights from the Atlantic Missile Range.
Details for orbital flight support had not been accomplished at that time. April 9 At a press conference in Washington, D. Keith Glennan announced that seven pilots had been selected for the Mercury program. These were Lt. Commander Alan B. Shepard, Jr. Grissom, Air Force; Lt. Colonel John H. Glenn, Jr. Commander Walter M. Schirra, Jr. Hearing before the Committee on Science and Astronautics, U. Figure I, pp.
Scale model of escape tower configuration tested at Arnold Engineering Development Center. April 12 Tests were in progress at Langley in which an aluminium honeycomb structure was used partially to absorb the spacecraft impact load. Gilruth, Project Mercury Director, had stated his belief of this requirement on January 16, Space Task Group conducted the second full-scale beach abort test on Wallops Island.
A deliberate thrust misalignment of 1 inch was programed into the escape combination. Lift-off was effected cleanly, and a slow pitch started during the burning of the escape rocket motor. The tower separated as scheduled and the drogue and main parachutes deployed as planned. The test was fully successful. Honeycomb structure partially to absorb impact force. Letter, Warren J. Rear Admiral J. Gannon was appointed by Donald A. Letter, Deputy Secretary of Defense to Dr. Glennan, no subject, April 13, April 15 Ground-instrumentation requirements for firing Little Joe test vehicles at Wallops Island were drafted.
These requirements involved pulse radars, camera, Doppler radar, wind-monitoring instruments, telemetry equipment, and a ground destruct system. Memo, Charles H. Admiral Gannon, the service spokesman, stated that the meeting was exploratory but that the Navy and other services would support the project.
During the course of this meeting, milestone objectives of the work to be accomplished were drafted. One of the requirements in the astronaut training program was to maintain proficiency in high performance aircraft.
April 22 In a meeting at Langley, NASA officials concluded that the tower configuration was the best escape system for the Mercury spacecraft and development would proceed using this concept. However, limited studies of alternate configurations would continue see March 28, , entry. Spacecraft and escape system configuration. Memo, M. April 27 Project Mercury was accorded the DX priority procurement rating.
The seven Project Mercury astronauts reported for duty and their training program was undertaken immediately. A tentative schedule of astronaut activities for the first months of training was issued.
Actual training began the next day. Within 3 months the astronauts were acquainted with the various facets of the Mercury program. Kimbrough, the spacecraft's commander, was selected as an astronaut by NASA in Crew-2 will mark his third trip to space, having flown on the Space Shuttle in and a Russian Soyuz in He's completed six spacewalks and has spent more than six months total in orbit. Army, where was a helicopter platoon leader and served in Operation Desert Storm.
A California native, McArthur came to the space agency after completing a doctorate in Oceanography as U. San Diego's Scripps Institution of Oceanography. She flew on the Space Shuttle for the final Hubble space telescope servicing mission in , working as a flight engineer.
Remarkably, she will also be sitting in the same seat as her husband and fellow astronaut Bob Behnken did in May of last year, as he piloted SpaceX's Demo-2 mission. Their 7-year-old son Theo will have watched both his parents launch to the space station in the past year, a fact SpaceX's Reed highlighted. We ask ourselves all the time: Would we be willing to fly our families on these vehicles? Hoshide is flying as a Crew-2 mission specialist. Pesquet is also flying as a Crew-2 mission specialist, having been selected as a European Space Agency astronaut in He has also flown to space before, having launched on a Soyuz in The company went on to further expand its knowledge of monitoring and maintaining health in space, and then brought it down to Earth, to dramatically change the course of patient monitoring in the field of health care.
Air Force on systems to monitor the vital signs of astronauts in space. This technology was first worn by astronauts James A. McDivitt and Edward H. White II during their historic Gemini IV flight—the first American spacewalk—to assure proper evaluation of their health and performance. After pioneering medical telemetry in the mids, Spacelabs Medical began making the transition from monitoring in space to monitoring in hospitals.
In , it launched Alpha, the first-ever patient-monitoring system to incorporate digital microprocessor technology. This helped to make patient monitoring faster, not to mention more affordable, since complex systems could now be produced by using smaller, less expensive parts, with less assembly work.
0コメント